Israel on Thursday faced accusations of committing "acts of genocide" in Gaza and exhibiting "signs of ethnic cleansing" in its military offensive in the Palestinian territory, charges the Israeli authorities denounced as "lies".
They are the latest in a series of accusations levelled against Israel -- and denied by the country -- during its 14-month war against Palestinian Hamas militants in the Gaza Strip.
In a report focused specifically on water, New York-based Human Rights Watch detailed what it called deliberate efforts by Israeli authorities "of a systematic nature" to deprive Gazans of water, which had "likely caused thousands of deaths... and will likely continue to cause deaths".
The war in Gaza was sparked by Hamas's October 7, 2023 attack on Israel that resulted in the deaths of 1,208 people, mostly civilians, according to an AFP tally of Israeli official figures.
Since then, Israel's retaliatory offensive has killed at least 45,129 people in Gaza, a majority of them civilians, according to figures from the Hamas-run territory's health ministry that the United Nations considers reliable.
"Human Rights Watch is once more spreading its blood libels in order to promote its anti-Israel propaganda," the foreign ministry said in a statement.
"Since the beginning of the war, Israel has facilitated the continuous flow of water and humanitarian aid into Gaza, despite operating under constant attacks" from Hamas.
COGAT, the Israeli defence ministry body responsible for civil affairs in the Palestinian territories, denied using water as a "weapon" and said that "three water lines from Israel are active" in supplying water to Gaza.
- Devastation -
In a separate report released on Thursday, Doctors Without Borders (MSF) accused Israel of causing widespread devastation in Gaza and noted "signs of ethnic cleansing" in the north of the Palestinian territory.
Israel in early October began a major military operation in Gaza's north, which it said aimed to prevent Hamas from regrouping there.
In a statement, MSF Secretary General Christopher Lockyear said "signs of ethnic cleansing and the ongoing devastation -- including mass killings, severe physical and mental health injuries, forced displacement, and impossible conditions of life for Palestinians under siege and bombardment -- are undeniable."
The foreign ministry slammed what it said was a "fabricated" MSF report.
"The report is entirely false and misleading. Israel does not target medical teams or individuals uninvolved in terrorist activities," the ministry said.
The HRW report detailed what the group said was the intentional damaging of water and sanitation infrastructure, as well as the blocking of fuel for generators.
The report concluded that in doing so, "Israeli authorities intentionally inflicted on the Palestinian population in Gaza 'conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part.'"
This, it said, amounted to the war crime of "extermination" and to "acts of genocide".
- 'Malnourished and dehydrated' -
Israel's foreign ministry said that, in addition to water pipelines, it has also ensured that "water pumping and desalination facilities... remain operational".
HRW stopped short of saying Israel was committing outright "genocide".
Under international law, proving genocide requires evidence of specific intent, which experts say is very difficult.
HRW pointed to a statement by then-defence minister Yoav Gallant as suggestive of Israel's intent. In October 2023, he declared a "complete siege" on Gaza and said: "No electricity, no food, no water, no gas -- it's all closed."
Israel is facing a case brought by South Africa at the International Court of Justice last December, arguing that the war in Gaza breached the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention, an accusation Israel has strongly denied.
In November the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, for Gallant, and also for Mohammed Deif, military chief of Hamas.
Israel told the court it will appeal the warrants.
The HRW report, drawn up over nearly a year, is based on interviews with dozens of Gazans, staff at water and sanitation facilities, medics and aid workers, as well as satellite imagery, photographs, videos and data analysis.
The lack of water left Gazans vulnerable to water-borne diseases and complications, such as infected wounds and the inability to heal due to dehydration, HRW said.
One emergency room nurse cited in the report said they were forced to decide "not to resuscitate children who were severely malnourished and dehydrated".
In early December Amnesty International accused Israel of "committing genocide" against Palestinians in Gaza.
That came after a United Nations special committee in November said Israel's warfare in Gaza is consistent with the characteristics of genocide. An HRW report at the same time said Israel's displacement of Gazans amounts to a "crime against humanity".
Israel dismissed each of these accusations as false.